CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A.Background
According to the great dictionary Indonesian (KBBI) theory is based on
the opinion of the research and discovery, supported by data and arguments;
experimental investigations were able to produce facts based on science, logic,
methodology, argumentation.
According to (Snelbecker, 1974 in Dahar, 1988: 5) The theory is a
proposition that is integrated syntactically and used to predict and explain
the events were observed. Proposition integrated syntactically, that is, a
collection of these propositions follow certain rules that can connect
logically with the proposition of the other propositions and also on the observed
data
Opinions about the other theory is theory is a set of variables,
definition / proposition interconnected that presents a systematic view of the
phenomenon to determine the relationship between variables, with the intention
of explaining natural phenomena.
While studying According KBBI is trying to obtain intelligence or
knowledge; changing behavior or responses that are caused by the experience.
Opinion others say that learning is a whole series of activities or the activities undertaken by a person consciously and result in a change in him in the form of knowledge or proficiency based sensing devices and experiences. So that, after learning of learners should be no change in behavior that is positive in the sense of new skills and insights to grow their knowledge.
Opinion others say that learning is a whole series of activities or the activities undertaken by a person consciously and result in a change in him in the form of knowledge or proficiency based sensing devices and experiences. So that, after learning of learners should be no change in behavior that is positive in the sense of new skills and insights to grow their knowledge.
So learning theory is an idea or ideas about the learning process that
aims to boost the quality of teaching and learning outcomes.
Bruner argues that learning theory is prescriptive and descriptive. Prescriptive because the main purpose of learning theory is to determine the optimal method of learning, while descriptive because the main purpose of learning theory is to explain the process of learning.
Bruner argues that learning theory is prescriptive and descriptive. Prescriptive because the main purpose of learning theory is to determine the optimal method of learning, while descriptive because the main purpose of learning theory is to explain the process of learning.
B. Problem Formulation
Based
on the background and the limitation issue, the problems discussed can be
formulated as follows :
1.What Is Ideas About Learning To The Curriculum?
2.What Are Main Theories Of Learning ?
3.What Is The Influence Of Learning Theories On The curriculum?
4. What Is Science Of Learning And Educational Strategy ?
C.The
Objectives
Based on the background and the
limitation issue, the objectives in this paper as follows :
1.
To
understand of the meaning Learning Theories
2.
To
understand the Ideas About Learning To The Curriculum.
3.
To understand
the Main Theories Of Learning.
4.
To
understand the The Influence Of Learning Theories On The curriculum.
5.
To
understand the Science Of Learning And Educational Strategy
CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. The Meaning
of Learning Theories
Learning theories are so central to the discipline of psychology that
it is impossible to separate the history of learning theories from the history
of psychology. Learning is a basic psychological process, and investigations of
the principles and mechanisms of learning have been the subject of research and
debate since the establishment of the first psychological laboratory by Wilhelm
Wundt in Leipzeig, Germany,
in 1879. Learning is defined as a lasting change in behaviors or
beliefs that results from experience. The ability to learn provides every
living organism with the ability to adapt to a changing environment. Learning
is an inevitable consequence of living–if we could not learn, we would die.
The evolution of
learning theories may be thought of as a progression from broad theories
developed to explain the many ways that learning occurs to more specific
theories that are limited in the types of learning they are designed to explain.
Learning theories are broadly separated into two perspectives. The first
perspective argues that learning can be studied by the observation and
manipulation of stimulus-response associations. This is known as the behaviorist
perspective because of its strict adherence to the study of observable
behaviors. This perspective was first articulated in 1913 by John Watson, who
argued that psychology should be the study of observable phenomena, not the
study of consciousness or the mind. Watson believed that objective measurement
of observable phenomena was the only way to advance the science of psychology.
The
second type of learning theory argues that intervening variables are
appropriate and necessary components for understanding the processes of learning.
This perspective falls under the broad rubric of cognitive learning theory,
and it was first articulated by Wilhem Wundt, the acknowledged "father of
psychology," who used introspection as a means of studying thought
processes. Although proponents of these two perspectives differ in their view
of how learning can be studied, both schools of thought agree that there are
three major assumptions of learning theory: (1) behavior is influenced by
experience, (2) learning is adaptive for the individual and for the species,
and (3) learning is a process governed by natural laws that can be tested and
studied.
B. The
Ideas About Learning to the Curriculum and Their Implications
While there is no single, universally accepted theory
of learning, most learning theorists would agree that students are not empty
vessels who passively absorb information. Learning is a relation between
students' prior knowledge, values, expectations and their environments.
Learning involves active learner engagement of one form or another and is always the learning of something - whether
the 'something' be disciplinary concepts, social practices or ways of being a
particular kind of person.
There are a number of current learning theories that
might be of relevance to practice-oriented curricula and this section provides
some very brief outlines of some with their implications. It does not attempt
to include all theories that might be relevant or deal with the theoretical
similarities or distinctions between these theories.
Constructivist theories maintain that learning
involves the active construction of knowledge and that the development of new
knowledge is influenced by prior knowledge and expectations. These theories
vary in the extent to which learning is seen as individual or social.
Approaches that have been influenced by constructivist ideas include active
learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning and inquiry-based
approaches.
Situated learning theorists (for example Lave &
Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998) maintain that learning is situated in
socio-cultural contexts. Learning is essentially a social process. Learning
takes place through participation in activities within communities of practice
and reification of ideas within these communities. In a practice-oriented
educational context, situated learning ideas have obvious implications for the
inclusion of authentic experiences of practice and work integrated learning but
they also emphasise the social dimensions of learning and the need for
collaboration and interaction.
Variation theory (Marton & Booth, 1997; Marton
& Tsui, 2003; Marton & Pang, 2006) maintain that learning requires the
experience of variation. For example, to learn to understand a threshold
concept, learners need to experience (among other forms of variation) the
variation between their prior understandings and disciplinary understandings of
that concept. Implications of variation theory include the need for learners to
experience variation in contexts of learning and application (Bowden et al, 2002),
for example in developing information literacies students would need to
experience variation in information sources and the information to be found in
them, ways of searching, different contexts for seeking and making use of
information and so on. It is not sufficient for teachers to simply present the
relevant variation as this does not guarantee that students will experience it.
Learning activities may need to be designed in ways that assist students to see
as relevant and notice the aspects of variation that are important amongst all
of the other aspects of complex environments. For example, engaging students
with practice applications then with theories relevant to those applications
may be more effective than the more usual approach of presenting decontextualised
theories followed by applications. While variation theory is not explicitly a
social theory of learning, other students are seen as important sources of
variation with students learning from the different ideas, perspectives and
problem-solving approaches of others.
Curriculum
design consistent with current ideas about learning
Students need opportunities to generate and test out
ideas, to experience variation between their previous ideas and new ones, to
learn in authentic contexts of practice, to learn collaboratively with others,
to reflect on their learning and to have appropriate choice and control over
their learning. To be consistent with these ideas, any technologies need to be
able to support student as well as staff generation and sharing of content,
student inquiry, collaboration and student documentation of and reflection on
learning.
This does not mean that there is no place for
lectures. Good lectures can motivate students, present overviews of key ideas
or highlight differences in perspectives or provide opportunities for students
to learn from lecturers’ practice experiences and practice-focused research.
However, lectures need to engage students and students need to be able to
discern and focus on the meaning of the ideas or concepts being presented. This
is often not the case, particularly when lectures present large amounts of
material with no or few opportunities for active engagement and reflection.
Current ideas about learning imply that lectures could be less dominant as a
mode of teaching, and that the lectures that are offered could afford more
opportunities for active learning, interaction, inquiry and reflection.
Podcasts or other recordings from lectures might be most useful for learning if
they are edited, helping students to focus on key concepts or ideas, or if they
are used to present material, such as stories of practice, that students cannot
easily access from other sources (such as textbooks). Flexibility is important
for meeting the needs of students with increasingly complex lives, but should
be balanced with the need to engage students in experiences that are more
likely to lead to desirable learning outcomes.
C.
The Main Theories Of Learning
Carlton Reeve
has written an excellent series of five articles in Play with Learning
which compares and contrasts the 5 main theories of learning (Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivist, Experientialism and Social Learning) which
underpin personal learning. Carlton also identifies different computer games
founded on each theory. I have produced a short synopsis here with links to the
5 original articles which are well worth studying.
Over the years,
academics have proposed a number of theories to describe and explain the
learning process - these can be grouped into five broad categories:
Behaviourism
Key behaviourist
thinkers including Thorndike[2], Pavlov[3] and Skinner[4] have hypothesized that learning is a
change in observable behaviour caused by external stimuli in the
environment. In behaviourist theory, change in behaviour demonstrates
some learning.
Behaviourists
describe “conditioning” as a universal learning process, dividing it into two
types:
- classical
conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus
- operant
conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced
The key principle
of Behaviourism is the reward or punishment of a new behaviour, commonly
described as the ‘carrot and stick’ approach to learning. The theory
states that rewarding someone for particular behaviour encourages him to behave
in the same way in a similar situation. The reward reinforces
behaviour. Conversely, if behaviour is punished, the subject is less
likely to repeat it. In Behaviourism, people can learn not to do things
as well as to do things.
Behaviourism has
had a particularly significant influence on teaching, training and
instruction. Learning objectives are typically described in Behaviourist
terms and identify specific behaviour that is desirable (and hence rewarded).
For practical skills, a Behaviourist approach often follows a
tell-show-practise-reinforce sequence. This process describes what is
going to be learnt, demonstrates how it is done, gives the learner an
opportunity to practise and uses reinforcement to refine behaviour.
Rewards typically take the form of feedback.
A key feature of
behaviourism is the fact it is based on observable behaviours: making it easy
to collect and quantify research data. However, there are many criticisms
of the theory including its inability to describe learning that occurs in the
absence of reinforcement (such as initial language learning), its disregard for
changes in reinforced behaviour and its ignoring of any purely cognitive input.
Computer games are
sometimes described as a “Skinner box” because of the way they offer
reward or punishment for the player’s behaviour. Like the classic
experiment, many games require the performance of a repetitive task to achieve
some goal or reward. In behaviourist theory, a reward or positive
reinforcer is anything that increases the frequency of a behaviour.
Conversely, punishment or negative reinforce is something that decreases the
frequency of a behaviour. The strict (narrative) structure and scheduling
of rewards is classic behaviourism and characterises many games.
Traditional
positive reinforcers in computer games include the following:
- Points
- Power-ups
- Bonuses
- Unlocks
Negative
reinforcers include:
- Failure
to beat high score
- An
increase in obstacles or opponents
- A
decline in health
Multiplayer and
social games provide a set of social reinforcers including:
- Status
- Leaderboards
Some commentators
including the Georgia Institute of Technology professor, Ian Bogost,
argue that gamification is a product of a simplistic Behaviourist approach to
game design. Game designer, Jon Radoff continues:
“The behaviorist
approach to games that channels inquiry away from the harder problems of
immersion, cooperation and competition that is so important to creating
successful game experiences.”[5]
Cognitivism
Cognitivism
replaced Behaviourism
as the dominant learning paradigm in the 1960s[1]. Cognitive psychology proposes that
learning comes from mental activity such as memory, motivation, thinking and
reflection. Cognitivists believe that learning is an internal process
that depends on the learner’s capacity, motivation and determination[2],[3].
Although
cognitivists such as Jean Piaget[4] and Jerome
Bruner[5] have different emphases, both
believe that learning is demonstrated through a change in knowledge and
understanding. Cognitivists describe this change as altering a learner’s
mental model. Cognitivists maintain that the mind, thinking and
understanding mediate the stimulus and response described by
behaviourists. That is, while learning may result in a change of
behaviour, it is primarily a change in understanding.
Cognitivism
focuses on the transmission of information from someone who knows (such as an
‘expert’ as opposed to facilitators) to learners who do not know. The
learners receive it, take it on board, store it, relate it to existing ideas
and information that they already have, index it (like a filing system) and
then retrieve it, so that they can find it in their memories later when they
need it. In cognitivism, learning is the process of connecting pieces of
knowledge in meaningful and memorable ways.
However, working
with older learners can be more difficult because in the cognitivist view,
learning is more about modifying and extending ideas than adding new
ones. Although more mature learners may have ‘collected’ more ideas they
may be ‘fixed’ or harder to change.
Cognitivism relies
heavily on Piaget’s notion of age-dependent “stages of development” to define the mental
capabilities of learners. For teachers in a cognitivist environment getting the
balance between the transmission and facilitation is critical for effective
learning. Practitioners have to decide when to offer input (transmitted
knowledge) to learners and when to facilitate a learner’s understanding of
their own personal model.
In cognitivist
thinking, purpose and outcomes are like a general sense of direction for a
journey rather than a detailed specification of the shared, identical
destination.
Cognitivism is
more concerned with process than the product and is therefore demonstrated by
games than improve reflexes, promote critical thinking or help people learn
different patterns of association. In 2009, Alain Lieury, professor of
cognitive psychology at the University of Rennes comprehensively
demolished claims that brain training games were any better than
even the humble paper and pen for increasing brain ‘power’ but
puzzles and strategy games that offer a free environment for decision-making such
as Tetris, Age of Empires and Professor Layton are good examples of the
cognitivist approach.
Bandura’s later
theory of Social Learning[6] attempts to bridge the gap between
behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention,
memory, and motivation.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of knowledge[1] that argues that humans generate
knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their
ideas. It has influenced a number of disciplines, including psychology,
sociology, education and the history of science.[2] During its infancy,
constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their
reflexes or behavior-patterns. Jean Piaget called these systems of
knowledge schemata. Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused
with constructionism,
an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert, inspired by constructivist
and experiential
learning ideas of Piaget. Piaget's theory of constructivist learning
has had wide ranging impact on learning
theories and teaching methods
in education and is an underlying theme of
many education reform
movements. Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been
mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research
contradicting those results.
Experientialism
Many theorists
propose that we learn from our experiences that is, that effective perception
and processing of experiences improves performance.
Merrill suggests
that the most effective learning environments have problem solving as their
basis. This trial and improvement, problem-solving covers four distinct
phases of learning:
- Activation
of prior experience;
- Demonstration
of skills;
- Application
of skills; and
- Integration
of these skills into real-world application.[1]
kolb's learning cycle
One of the key
theorists of experiential learning is David A. Kolb. Kolb developed his
experiential model, as opposed to a purer cognitive one, following the
influence of Dewey and Piaget[2]. Kolb formally recognised that
people learn from experience and described learning as following a cycle of
stages:
- Concrete
experience
- Observation
and reflection
- Abstract
conceptualisation
- Testing
concepts in new situations[3]
In crude terms,
learners have to do something, think about it, pull out its key points and
apply them to work or life. In the first, perceptual, half of this cycle
learners sense and absorb the information coming from concrete experience and
reflect on its significance. During the processing period, learners build
cognitive models that can be tested in practice.
Kolb argued that
learners can enter this cycle at any point and that learning is a process of
repeatedly looping about these four stages. Feedback from the experience
becomes key in the refinement of performance and the learner’s ability to apply
knowledge in new circumstances.
The experiential
view of learning is considered more sophisticated than pure behaviourism
or constructivism
because it represents a more holistic view of the learner.
However, like constructivism,
experiential learning draws on the learner’s personal experience. The
role of the facilitator is to encourage learners to address the various stages
of the learning cycle.
One of the
implications of this is that the role for practitioners is not about teaching
specific knowledge or training fixed behaviours, but is one of helping the
learner discover approaches that work for them.
Facilitation is
about creating and providing space for learners to try out something new,
reflect on their experiences, arrive at new conclusions and think about how
they would apply these conclusions in their work and life. In this view
people learn for themselves with a bit of help and assistance, rather than have
it done to or for them.
As with constructivism,
the learner is not a passive recipient of learning simply being fed knowledge
but is active in its gathering and manipulation.
Typical
experiential games include task-based simulations (such as SimCity) or
role-play (e.g. The Sims) where players have a given or a chosen goal and must
act consistently “in character” to achieve it. The beauty of these
“open-ended sandboxes” is that players can experiment and “fail softly.”
In physical
role-play, children have been observed to use real objects to create imaginary
situations in which they role-played and formulated rules that surfaced
naturally during their play [4](Berk, 1995). In the same way,
simulations allow for the simplification of systems: they describe manageable
chunks of behaviour that learners can absorb. The structure and
simplification of environments gives users the chance to parse information more
effectively.
Herz (1997: 220)
suggests that the circumstances within a simulation are less important than the
forces that create them [5]. The “four dimensional building
blocks” of moving resources in time do not change the system they merely
illustrate the way in which it operates and allowing the user to establish the
rules and relationships between elements. The simulation therefore
describes environmental processes through graphics, animations and other dynamic
media, portraying complex abstract relationships in a more recognisable and
intuitive way.
And that is where
simulations offer most education value, not product but process: the
articulation of rules and relationships – the basis of experiential learning.
Social and
Contextual
In this final look
at how each of the major learning
theories relate to games, we explore the ideas behind social
learning. In the social and contextual approach to learning, the outcome
is for the learner to become socially accepted and to be an effective member
within a community. This is what is commonly referred to as learning in a
community of practice (COP)[1],[2].
In the Social and
Contextual approach, learning does not occur solely within the learner, but in
the group and community in which they work. Learning is a shared process
which takes place through observing, working together and being part of a
larger group, which includes colleagues of varying levels of experience, able
to stimulate each other’s development. In this view, rather like cognitivism,
individuals only learn from more competent others but the emphasis is now on being
part of a larger system. Crucially, this system includes the learner,
other people around them, the equipment they use, the technologies they work
with, the procedures they work with and the overall culture of the workplace.
Whether they are
conscious of it or not, groups, and individuals within them, learn mainly
through social interaction. This happens through discussion, observing
and sharing. Again, the role of the practitioner is one of facilitator
who needs to help focus discussion to maximise key learning points rather than
just letting a group tell irrelevant anecdotes.
Vygotsky in his
Social Development Theory[3] coined the term “scaffolding” to describe
the various forms of support that educational providers can offer
learners. It might include verbal assistance, questioning, suggestions
and directions all aimed at extending a learner’s activities where the learner
cannot accomplish this alone.
For Vygotsky,
learning from others more competent in culturally appropriate skills and
technologies was the capstone to his educational theory. Vygotsky
suggests that children or students can be guided by explanation, demonstration,
and work, and can attain to higher levels of thinking if they are guided by
someone who is more capable and competent – a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
This conception is better known as The Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD). The Zone of Proximal Development is the gap between what the
learner can achieve on his own and what he can achieve with the support of
others. The ability to attain higher levels of knowledge and understanding
depends upon interaction with other, more advanced, peers. This unequal
interaction facilitates and encourages learning. Through increased
interaction and involvement, students are able to extend themselves to higher
levels of cognition. Vygotsky defined the Zone of Proximal Development as,
“the distance
between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem
solving under the guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.”
The ZPD is the
difference between what students can accomplish independently and what they can
achieve in conjunction or in collaboration with another, more competent
person. The Zone is created in the course of social interaction.
The term “social
game” has become very popular of late. Farmville is perhaps the commonly
thought of social game (although many
don’t think it is a game at all) because to succeed requires the
active participation of other players: collaboration is essential to progress
(that or using real-world payments to short-circuit the process).
Massively
Multiplayer Online Role-playing Games (MMORGs) like World of Warcraft are
better examples of social and contextual games because they are dependent on
multi-layered teamwork. In these circumstances, players improve their
performance through the observation, imitation and modelling of others.
Social learning
also occurs outside the game world but in related ‘spaces’ such as forums.
The associated activity of leader tables, message boards, hints, tips and
cheats all represent instances of social encouragement, support and scaffolding.
D. The Influence Of Learning Theories on the Curriculum
1. Theory of
Mental Discipline, the practice of mental power, especially the power of
thought, this goal is very narrow. Ynag teaching materials to train the
intellect to occupy an important place. In determining the material, how many
children do not factor ignored. The material was arranged in a logical sequence
according denagan subjects systematics of it, so usually begins with a
definition or scientific classification, then objects or concrete examples.
2. Theory
Association, prioritizing specific teaching materials, which consists of a
number of S-R and controlled through a careful presentation, memorization and
repetition. Presented is the atomistic elements, not the ideas of principle.
Presentation of specific things in a way that it looked very meticulous in
teaching berprogram and "Teaching machines" also "Job
analysis" as performed for the first time by the Charters is based on that
theory.
3. Gestalt theory
or field theory has clear objectives and broad. Ie not only impart knowledge
but also the process of facing and solving problems, personal development,
learning materials considered in determining the interests and development of
children, child community environment and materials from a variety of subjects.
Curriculum includes social development, emotional, and intellectual.
Organization of teaching materials and teaching methods precedence relationships
and interaction and understanding. Facts or specific information required to
obtain an understanding of it. In contrast to the theory of the Association,
which is a lot given the role of "passive" to children, Gestalt
theory is memendang learning as a process that memerlikan child activities.
Because it used a method of problem solving and inquiry approach. Children
themselves must find an answer problem, with the guidance and help of teachers
to the extent necessary.
D. The Science Of
Learning And Educational Strategy
After learning
approach set forth lowered into the Learning Strategy. In education, the
strategy is defined as a plan, method, or series of activities designed to
Achieves a particular educational goal. Learning strategy can be interpreted as
a plan that contains a series of activities designed to achieve educational
goals. Learning strategies are general patterns of activities teachers and
students in creating learning activities to achieve certain basic competencies.
According to Newman and Logan in Abin
Shamsuddin Ma'mun (2003), there are four elements of every business strategy,
namely:
a. Identify and define specifications
and qualification results (output) and the target (target) to be achieved, taking into account the
aspirations and tastes of people in need.
b. Consider and choose the main approach road (basic way) are the most effective way to achieve the goal.
c. Consider and define the steps (steps) that will be taken from the starting point to the target.
d. Consider and establish benchmarks (criteria) and the benchmark measure for measure and assess the level of success.
The fourth element, if implemented within the context of learning are as follows:
a. Establishes the specification and qualification of the learning objectives that change the behavior of learners.
b. Consider and choose a system of learning approaches that are considered most effective.
c. Consider and define the steps or procedures, methods, and techniques of learning.
d. Establish norms and limits the minimum size of the learning success.
b. Consider and choose the main approach road (basic way) are the most effective way to achieve the goal.
c. Consider and define the steps (steps) that will be taken from the starting point to the target.
d. Consider and establish benchmarks (criteria) and the benchmark measure for measure and assess the level of success.
The fourth element, if implemented within the context of learning are as follows:
a. Establishes the specification and qualification of the learning objectives that change the behavior of learners.
b. Consider and choose a system of learning approaches that are considered most effective.
c. Consider and define the steps or procedures, methods, and techniques of learning.
d. Establish norms and limits the minimum size of the learning success.
According to Hamzah B. Uno, learning strategies is to note the teacher in the
learning process. Kemp (Vienna Senjaya 2008) mean that the learning strategy is
a learning activity that must be done so that teachers and students learning
objectives can be achieved effectively and efficiently. Meanwhile, J. R David,
Vienna Senjaya (2008) states that learning strategies contained in the meaning
of planners. That is, the learning strategy is still basically a conceptual
nature of the decisions to be taken in an implementation of learning. Dick and
Carey said that learning strategies are components of a set of materials
including activities prior to learning and participation of students who are
learning the procedures used next activity. Meanwhile, according to Suparman,
learning strategy is a combination of a sequence of activities, how to organize
the subject matter of learners, equipment and materials, and time spent in the
learning process to achieve the learning objectives have been determined.
According Rowntree in Vienna Sanjaya, learning strategies can be grouped into
two parts, namely:1. Learning Strategies Invention Submission (Exposition Discovery Learning)
2. Learning Strategies Group and Individual (Individual Learning Group)
Strategies differ from the methods. Strategy refers to a plan to achieve something (a plan of operation echieving something), while the method is a method that can be used to implement the strategy (a way in Achieving something).
In the learning process, also known as Instructional Design term. At more learning strategy with regard to the general pattern and general procedures of learning activities, while instructional design more points to ways to plan a particular learning environment system after a particular set of learning strategies.
CHAPTER III
CLOSSING
CONCLUSSION
a. Learning is generally interpreted as a change in the goodness of a person as a result of the influence of educational efforts.
b. There are various theories learned that each has a goodness and a shortage of shortages of learning theory does not mean we should ignore entirely.
c. Learning theory espoused influence on curriculum building. Psychology theories power (mental discipline) prioritizing mental training obtained through the lesson material. Theory prioritizes Association mastery learning material itself, while the Gestalt theory concerned with the personal development of children in an attempt to troubleshoot problems that face it in his life.
d. Theories of learning also affect the learning process. But teaching is not supported by psychological study strengthened by experimentation. Because learning in the classroom are many variables that can not be controlled, then the experiment can dilakuakn mostly about learning by association.
b. There are various theories learned that each has a goodness and a shortage of shortages of learning theory does not mean we should ignore entirely.
c. Learning theory espoused influence on curriculum building. Psychology theories power (mental discipline) prioritizing mental training obtained through the lesson material. Theory prioritizes Association mastery learning material itself, while the Gestalt theory concerned with the personal development of children in an attempt to troubleshoot problems that face it in his life.
d. Theories of learning also affect the learning process. But teaching is not supported by psychological study strengthened by experimentation. Because learning in the classroom are many variables that can not be controlled, then the experiment can dilakuakn mostly about learning by association.
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Ezazoel.2014.Belajar Ilmu. http://irawatiardi.blogspot.co.id/2014/11/pengertian-pendekatan-strategi-metode.html.05Desember2015.
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